Indigenous Americans in the Civil War

Welcome to Civics and Coffee. My name is Alycia and I am a self-professed history nerd. Each week, I am going to chat about a topic on U.S history and give you both the highlights and occasionally break down some of the complexities in history; and share stories you may not remember learning in high school. All in the time it takes to enjoy a cup of coffee. 

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Hey everyone, welcome back. 

This is officially episode 200. I thought about doing something extra special to celebrate, but I’ve been a wee bit busy with finalizing the work needed to complete my master’s degree so I guess we’ll have to wait to celebrate in another 100 episodes. For those of you who have been following along on my academic journey, I am happy to report that I successfully defended my thesis!  

Thus far in my Civil War coverage journey I’ve talked about some of the major battles, how spying impacted war efforts, as well as the role of Black troops and the advancements of medical treatments. One group thus far uncovered are the indigenous men and women who were drawn into the conflict, either through force or through a sense of self-preservation. 

It is estimated that nearly 20,000 native americans fought in the Civil War, both for the Union and the Confederacy. So this week, I am covering the role of indigenous americans in the Civil War. What drew them into the conflict? How successful were they? And what happened after the war was over? 

Grab your cup of coffee, peeps. Let’s do this. 

Before we dive into how indigenous americans responded to and participated in the Civil War, let’s do a brief catch up on the various federal policies and initiatives implemented in the years before the conflict to get an understanding of their lived experiences. As I’ve covered on the show, the United States had a pretty abysmal record when it came to negotiating and acting in good faith with the various indigenous tribes they encountered. The historical record is peppered with dozens of treaties and agreements made between the federal government and indigenous americans. Hungry for land and resources to build a nascent country, the United States seemed to be solely focused on collecting and cultivating the vast natural resources at all costs. From the start, the policy of the United States appeared to be one of removal and containment, forcefully pushing tribal communities from their homelands and into increasingly inhospitable land reservations. 

This policy was formalized in 1830 with Andrew Jackson’s signature on the Indian Removal Act, allowing the federal government to establish land west of the Mississippi to relocate thousands of indigenous americans. While some went peacefully, thousands did not, prompting several violent clashes. However, the policy of removal was largely successful, resulting in thousands of individuals living inside the area that would become Oklahoma. If you remember your Civil War geography at all, then you may recall that this area was on the border of the confederacy, therefore putting residents in a very difficult situation. 

Those living in the West did not fare much better. As the United States acquired additional territory and sought to expand its borders, Indigenous Americans were seen as little more than savages who needed to be forced out of the area. Hundreds of white men sought to clear territory for settlement, often through any means necessary and were frequently aided in their efforts by federal troops. So when the country split apart and Civil War broke out in 1861, it left the thousands of indigenous residents with a decision to make: would they side with the union, a government that had a long history of making and breaking promises? Would they choose to remain neutral and see how the conflict played out? Or would they take their chances on the newly formed confederate government? As it turns out, there was no one single response. 

Sitting in between the confederacy and the union, the group of indigenous americans, known as the Five Civilized Tribes, were in a precarious position. To their south were thousands of men looking to usurp the federal government and establish a new legislative body. To their north, the federal government who held a long, complicated history. Both the Union and the Confederacy realized the potential power of currying favor with tribal leaders. Native Americans were smart, effective warriors and despite any attitudes or prejudices of racial superiority, both sides understood what a resource they could be. As author Ashley Dunbar notes, quote “when the confederacy broke from the union, a fight for sympathies ensued,” end quote.  

As the conflict broke out in 1861, Secretary of War Simon Cameron ordered the federal abandonment of all posts in the Indian Territory, leaving members of the five civilized tribes vulnerable to confederate attack. Many in the area had been worried about what a Lincoln president would mean for their land, as representatives of the campaign made hints about breaking up what little territory the tribes had left. Several tribal members also held people in bondage and so, like their confederate neighbors to the south, were worried about losing their source of free labor. The Confederate government took notice and worked to curry favor quickly. As historian Arell Gibson notes quote, “just as the union was abandoning the indian territory, the confederacy was showing strong interest in it as a source of supply for critical items and manpower for southern armies,” end quote. 

The government of the south quickly sent representatives to negotiate with tribal leaders. The confederacy, represented by Albert Pike, hoped that by highlighting their similarities, they would be successful in securing their support in the war. Like the south, many indigenous tribes residing in the Indian Territory had an agricultural based economy and confederate representatives used this, and their shared practice of enslaving others, as a common interest upon which they could build an alliance. Representatives meeting with indigenous members promised more favorable treaties and to stand up for Indian independence. On the surface, it makes sense that the confederacy would be successful in convincing indigenous americans to side with them. The confederacy was separating from a government they felt had violated their rights and who had a long history of failing to meet the terms of previous agreements. Despite the fact the members of the confederacy had supported and engaged in removal activities, they could claim to be a fresh new government who would provide resources and protection for an increasingly vulnerable group of people. Members of the collective known as the five civilized tribes entered into agreements to protect their remaining land holdings, however not everyone was on the same page. 

The collective referred to as the five civilized tribes comprised members from the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole nations. Pike successfully secured agreements from each tribe and while the Choctaw and Chickasaw remained pretty consistent in their support of the confederacy, the other three nations seemed to have internal disagreements. Some members wished to remain neutral, such as the Cherokee, but this was not a tenable solution as the confederate armies were just miles away and the federal union had all but abandoned the territory. 

John Ross, the leader of the Cherokee nation, tried to avoid joining the confederacy as much as possible, wishing instead to remain neutral. However, he felt pressure to shift positions once the confederacy drafted fellow Cherokee Stand Watie as a Colonel. Watie, who like Ross, was considered a half-blood given his mother’s mixed race, was born on December 12, 1806 in what became Gordon County, Georgia. He was given the Cherokee name Degadoga, which roughly translates to “he stands” before being renamed Isaac after his father was baptized by the Moravian Church. Watie eventually shed the Christian moniker, deciding to go with the English version of his Cherokee name, Stand.  

Watie signed a treaty with the federal government in 1835 calling for the relocation of Cherokee members to Oklahoma, a move that resulted in his forfeiture of Cherokee life and earning himself a long-time enemy in John Ross. Ross, born in Alabama on October 3, 1790, served as Chief of the Cherokee Nation for almost forty years. He worked hard to fight against Indian Removal policies, frequently losing to the overwhelming power of the federal government. It is perhaps no wonder then that Ross sought to remain as neutral as possible, likely unwilling to fully trust neither the union nor the southern representatives. 

Upon Stand Watie’s commission with the Confederacy, he successfully recruited enough men to establish the First Regiment of Cherokee Mounted Volunteers, posing a tangible threat to the remaining members of the nation. Fearing an attack and very aware of being surrounded by confederates and their sympathizers, Ross reluctantly agreed to enter into an alliance with the Confederacy before escaping to the union in 1862. 

After Ross’ escape, Watie became the principal chief of the now-confederate aligned Cherokee nation. He eventually held the rank of Brigadier General, the only native american to achieve such rank throughout the Civil War. He commanded the 1st and 2nd Cherokee Calvary, the Creek Squadron, and the Osage and Seminole Battalions. Throughout the course of the war, Watie and his men participated in a series of battles, including the Battle of Pea Ridge in 1862, and the Second Battle of Cabin Creek in 1864. 

However, the Confederacy wasn’t the only side in the conflict to enjoy support from the indigenous population. The Delaware Nation declared its allegiance to the federal union on October 1st, 1861 and a majority of their men volunteered to serve in the army. Despite the many broken promises and forced removal, indigenous groups, like the formerly enslaved and freed black men who also served, hoped that by performing bravely in the defense of the country they might finally convince white leaders to treat them as men and allow them to maintain control over what little land they had left. The Delaware weren’t the only tribal members to join the union cause. The 1st and 2nd Indian Home Guard comprised members from the Creek, Shawnee, Kickapoo and others. They also saw military successes, securing union victory in October of 1862 with their advance on the Wichita Agency. 

Also working on behalf of the union was Ely Parker. Born in New York in 1828, Parker rose to the highest union rank, serving as Lieutenant Colonel, and was also a trained engineer. Before the war, Parker worked for the U.S. Treasury Department where he oversaw construction of a customs building. During the Civil War, Parker served as U.S. Grant’s secretary and drafted the terms of surrender for Robert E. Lee. 

Out west, where there was arguably minimal military engagement relating to the War, indigenous nations still felt the impacts of the increased military presence and faced continued harassment and removal. Again from historian Arell Gibson, quote “the civil war produced a thorough militarization of the west which impacted dreadfully upon the Indian Nations,” end quote. In 1861, President Lincoln called for the western states to raise volunteers for potential deployment against the confederacy. The men of the west were to be in place in case the confederacy turned their attention westward, where these men would act as a preventative force. However, the confederacy never turned their attention elsewhere and the calls to protect the western borders never came, leaving the men with little else to occupy their attention. This contributed to a series of raids as troops sought to push Native Americans out of areas with vast natural resources, such as mining communities in New Mexico and parts of Arizona. 

One campaign, known as the Navajo Long Walk, was directed by General James Henry Carleton, who successfully forced the Navajo from their homeland so the army could capture their supplies and use their resources. They were arguably harsh in their methods, conducting a scorched earth campaign where they burned villages and destroyed livestock on their march of terror hoping to convince the Navajo to desert their ancestral home once and for all. Their plan worked and thousands of Navajo surrendered and marched hundreds of miles south to the Bosque Redondo (Boss K Ray Don D’oh) reservation. 

As the dust settled in the aftermath of the Civil War, conditions did not improve for the thousands of indigenous people still residing within the borders of the United States. Trying to piece the country back together without prompting another conflict, Congress and President Andrew Johnson delicately worked through the conditions and requirements former confederate states would need to follow in order to be able to rejoin the United States. However, the Indian Territory occupied by members of the Five Civilized Tribes was a bit different. As a territory, they did not officially secede from the union, meaning they did not fall under the established protocols for rejoining the union required of the confederate states. However, because the tribal leaders signed treaties with the Confederacy, they had, in essence, relinquished any previously extended federal rights they previously held. At least according to federal negotiators. 

Sitting down with federal Commissioner of Indian Affairs Dennis N. Cooley members of the tribal nations started negotiations in September of 1865. During these meetings, Cooley indicated that brand new agreements were required and that the federal government was no longer bound by previously established treaties since the tribes chose to join the Confederacy. Negotiators failed to consider that when the union abandoned their posts, many tribal leaders were without protection and likely felt they had no other choice than to acquiesce to the Confederacy. Perhaps another excuse to ensure total control over long sought after land, Cooley did not relent and members of the Five Civilized Tribes eventually signed a series of treaties that came to be known as the Reconstruction Treaties. Finalized over several months in the summer of 1866, the agreements gave amnesty to any crimes committed against the United States and divided up tribal lands for individual ownership.  

At the end of it all, Indigenous Americans did not gain the freedom or equality they had long hoped for. Their experiences, in certain aspects, were similar to those of their Anglo neighbors; some disagreed over their alliances, while others hoped to avoid the war entirely. Despite their brave service on behalf of the Union, indigenous Americans still did not fit the crafted definition of what it meant to be an American. Like their African American counterparts, native people would continue to suffer from the slights and questionable policies implemented by the United States in the 19th and 20th centuries, including things like assimilation schools and delayed access to the franchise. 

Well, friends. That is a wrap on episode 200. I know I have said this before, but I am so thankful for all of you out there. This Covid project has sea legs I could not have anticipated and has introduced me to some wonderful people. I love connecting with you each week and sharing my love of history with others. Thanks for coming back each week and making this show what it is. You rock. 

Thanks, peeps. I’ll see you next week.

Thanks for tuning and I hope you enjoyed this episode of Civics & Coffee. If you want to hear more small snippets from american history, be sure to subscribe wherever you get your podcasts. Thanks for listening and I look forward to our next cup of coffee together. 

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